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SUBSTITUTION OF HAZARDOUS CHEMICALS
IN THE WORKING ENVIRONMENT
Frode Soerensen
Introduction
The traditional way to deal with occupational health problems
due to chemicals starts with measuring the air pollution and
comparing it with the threshold limit value (TLV). The TLV has
been set mainly on the basis of the acute effects of a chemical
on, for example, mucous membranes, and on technical and
economic considerations. If the exposure level is too high,
then the use of preventive measures such as encapsulation,
industrial ventilation or personal protective devices and
clothing may be proposed. This means that something is added to
the process, for example an exhaust system transferring the
pollution to the environment. Normally, nothing is changed in
the process proper or in the use of chemicals.
But a change of this by substitution can result in a
fundamental and continued improvement in occupational health by
selection and development of alternative technical processes
using less hazardous chemicals or no chemicals at all.
In a substitution, the chemicals in the final situation must be
potentially less hazardous than in the initial situation, and
the difference should be as great as possible.
It is especially important to avoid chemicals with long-term
effects of a carcinogenic, reprotoxic, allergenic or neurotoxic
nature because there are problems with safe limits, and the
traditional methods of prevention such as personal protective
devices and clothing, industrial ventilation or encapsulation
are, in practice, often not sufficient.
It is also important to remember that less hazardous chemicals
are not necessarily harmless, e.g. a hot alkaline solution used
in metal degreasing. The traditional preventive measures may
still have to be used, but the substitution has reduced the
level of hazards.
Substitution is the opposite of biological monitoring where
workers instead of hazardous chemicals are replaced.
Substitution cuts the cycle of hazardous chemicals - also in
the environment. Substitution of hazardous chemicals is one way
to cleaner technology.
Methods
Both general and specific methods of substitution have been
developed. The general methods should be useful for all kinds
of hazardous chemicals in the working environment. They should
give a broad selection of alternatives on different levels such
as using
1) less hazardous chemicals in the same process,
e.g.
a) For
construction paints: from organic solvents to waterbased paints.
b)IIn printing industry for cleaning of offset printing
machines: from organic solvents to products based on esters of
vegetable oils,
2) a new design of the process, e.g.
a) In metal degreasing: from vapour degreasing with trichloroethylene to
high pressure hosing with hot alkaline solution in a closed system.
b) In brazing: from fluxes containing boron and fluor compounds
to use of a furnace with reducing atmosphere,
3) a new process, e.g.
a) Removal of old paint: from a mixture of dichloromethane and
methanol to blasting with steel sand in a closed system.
b) From bonding with adhesives to a new design of items locking
them mechanically together, mutually,
4) avoid the use of the process, e.g.
a) Avoiding electroplating with nickel only applied for cosmetic
reasons without any technical
purpose.
b) Furniture of wood: from lacquer with organic solvents to no
surface treatment especially used for furniture of quality, and
5) avoid the product.
? ?
But always using less hazardous chemicals or no chemicals at
all.
The specific methods are limited only to consider less
hazardous chemicals in the same process. Therefore the general
methods should be used before the specific methods.
General Methods
1)
A process-based method
In our projects we have developed a process-based method
(1,2,3), which is based on a process engineering point of view.
The process-based method is useful both on branch and company
level and includes:
a) listing the chemical products,
b)
obtaining information on their composition,
c)
developing data sheets,
d)
process analysis,
e)
assessing the risk, and
f)
proposing substitutes.
Re a) Listing the chemical products is the first step in a
systematic approach to improve occupational health. A form
should be used for each chemical product, and surveys of
production lines, processes and process steps should be
performed so that the chemical products can be referred
thereto. Listing on a company level will normally result in a
purge of chemical products, because it is often found that some
products are used in places other than those intended, that
many products are no longer used and that there is more than
one product for a specific use. The existing EU labeling and
classification system does not motivate for substitution
because of lack of relevant and sufficient information about
long-term effects especially for organic solvents. Chemical
products may contain high concentrations of organic solvents,
e.g. for white spirit and xylene about 10 %, without
consequence for the labeling.
Re c) Data sheets are developed by use of literature and data
bases on toxicology, first for pure substances and then for
products. Data sheets, useful for substitution, should contain
the same sufficient and systematic information for chemicals
both for the initial and for the new situation. It is therefore
important to define the necessary information for an adequate
description. Essential information must include chemical,
physical and physico-chemical data as well as information on
short- and long-term effects. In our data sheets we use a
matrix (see figure 1) which, when filled in, provides a picture
of the present knowledge of the long-term effects.
Figure 1.
Matrix in data sheet describing the state of knowledge to be
marked
with an x of the potential hazard of long-term exposure.
The concept of the matrix is that we are forced to state in
detail the knowledge of the long-term effects. The most common
result is “No documentation”. In future we can hope to get
substances separated in “damage to health” and “probably no
damage to health”. In the work with substitution it is
important to distinguish between “Probably no damage to health”
and “No documentation”. It is also important to look at all
long-term effects, and not only one effect, e.g. carcinogenic,
such as in the directive 90/394 EEC with the risk to substitute
to chemicals with the other long-term effects. Good control of
long-term effects can prevent many mistakes in connection with
substitution. And it is important by substitution to present
the state of knowledge especially for the final situation. With
the existing knowledge I find that 1) it is very attractive to
substitute to no use of chemicals, 2) it is only possible to
use a qualitative description and not a quantitative one based
on TLV’s, and 3) further the demand for a great difference
between the two situations is necessary. Also in order to avoid
spoiling the concept of substitution.
The matrix could be useful for producers when they formulate
products and want to avoid chemicals with long-term effects. In
workshops, the matrix could be used to control that there is
sufficient information on available data sheets.
The best way to help the work for better occupational health
within companies is to make certain that they receive data
sheets of substitution-level quality. In a project we have
developed data sheets for 150 degreasing agents enabling Danish
companies to choose e. g. between waterbased products. The
possibilities of substitution are in our data sheets the first
point under methods of prevention. A data sheet can only
present the potential risk (hazard) without consideration of
time and way of exposure. The real risk depends on the actual
exposure, which in turn depends on process design, technical
level, industrial ventilation etc. Such data cannot be included
in a general data sheet.
I have not succeeded in my efforts to make the “official”
Danish data sheets useful for substitution. I was in the
steering committee for the project and worked for a
substitution-level quality for the data sheets, but the Danish
Working Environment Service, the Danish National Institute of
Occupational Health, and the Danish Paintmakers Association
were against this and especially against the detailed
information about the long-term effects. I therefore find that
the Danish Working Environment Service and the Danish National
Institute of Occupational Health fundamentally secure a bad
occupational health in connection with chemicals. The answer of
the Danish Minister of Labour (4) confirms this opinion of mine
in the work with the collected examples of substitution because
the labour inspectors have reported many examples of
substitutions where a careful study later showed they were
wrong. Also the EU data sheets according to the directive
155/91/EEC are not useful for substitution. Data sheets of this
type will secure the continued use of hazardous chemicals.
Re d) The process analysis is based on visits to plants and
exhibitions and on studies of the relevant literature of the
process in question. The process analysis comprises: the use of
the process, the place of the process in a production line,
subdivision into process steps, the level of technology,
description of equipment, and the chemistry involved. The
process analysis normally generates a number of alternatives.
Re e) Ideally the assessment of the risk for processes is based
on information on data sheets, workplace measurements of
exposure, and epidemiological surveys of occupational diseases.
But very often only the information in data sheets is available
for the process in question. The risk to humans is “small” if
it is probable that there are no long-term effects, the
exposure is essentially lower than the TLV, and there are no
indications of diseases, symptoms or nuisances.
Re f) If the risk is not “small”, the possibilities for
substitution should be looked into. In our projects we have had
the experience that the process analysis already had generated
alternatives for which we are making an assessment similar to
the initial process. Then it is possible to compare and decide
whether the alternative is a good substitution.
Substitution should be envisioned in connection with the whole
production line - the total exposure must be reduced. By the
substitution other effects in the working environment than the
chemical hazards and the effects on the environment should also
be considered. The proposed substitute should be tested in
workshops for technical applicability, or existing technical
experience in workshops should be collected.
Conclusion for the method
Our experience using the process-based method is that the
method is especially suitable in following cases:
1)
processes for which little knowledge of chemical factors of
occupational health exists, because these will be elucidated
systematically and dealt with,
2)
processes with many chemical products, because this opens up
several possibilities for substitution,
3)
processes with many types of design,
4)
processes for which alternative processes exist, and
5)
selection and development of new technology, because potential
hazards due to chemicals are systematically worked through.
Further I find for substitution in industry that a
process-based method is a very good tool for a qualitative
improvement of occupational health. It is important to have a
broad knowledge of processes in industry. For successful
substitution it is necessary to be in a dialogue and
cooperation with designers, constructors, technicians of
production, and producers/suppliers of chemical products and of
new processes because substitution often requires changes in
equipment, working methods, work organization, etc.
2) A method based on functional analysis
This method (5) is developed in practical work in the Danish
Occupational Health Service. The method focuses on describing
the basic requirement to be met by the chemical product that
should be replaced. New ideas to meet the requirements could be
achieved using brainstorm or more systematic search routines.
Specific Methods
1) Chemicals to chemicals substitution is included in
the general methods, but it has been especially developed. and
restricted beforehand to only less hazardous chemicals in the
same process.
2) The
SUBTEC-method (6) is applied for substitution
between organic solvents. The method is based on solubility
parameters and TLVs for each organic solvent and is especially
useful in the cases where the general methods have not given
possibilities of substitution without the use of organic
solvents.
3)
The code number of products (8,9,10) is used for
substitution between construction paints.
Results
In the following I will present the experience with
substitution of organic solvents and some other chemicals.
Organic solvents
WHO’s definition of organic solvents is (11): “The term organic
solvents is a generic name for a group of chemical compounds or
mixtures which are liquid in the temperature range of
approximately 0 - 250°
C. They are volatile and relatively chemically inert. Solvents
are used industrially to extract, dissolve or suspend materials
not soluble in water (e.g. fats, lipids, resins and
polymers)....”
In the working environment organic solvents have acute effects
when absorbed through the skin or inhaled. They can irritate
skin, eyes and airways and cause headache, dizziness, nausea,
tiredness and apathy. There are long-term effects (12) such as
carcinogenic,
e. g. benzene, trichloromethane, tetrachloromethane,
trichloroethylene, tetrachloroethylene, dichloromethane,
1,4-dioxane, ethyl acrylate, 2-nitropropane and styrene,
reprotoxic,
e. g. benzene, ethanol, methyl glycol, toluene, xylene,
styrene, ethyl glycol, tetrachloroethylene, trichloroethylene,
tetrachloromethane, dichloromethane, dimethylformamide,
methylchloride, methylethylketone (MEK), methyl methacrylate,
N-methyl-2-pyrrolidone, white spirit, ethyl acrylate, ethyl
methacrylate and 1,1,1-trichloroethane,
allergenic,
e. g. hexylene glycol, 2-propanol, methyl acrylate, methyl
methacrylate, propylene glycol, orange terpene oil and
turpentine, and
neurotoxic effects like organic brain damage (Chronic Toxic
Encephalopaty)
(11,13,14,15).
In the environment organic solvents can affect aquatic and
terrestric biota, produce ozone by photochemical processes in
the lower stratum of the atmosphere like other Volatile Organic
Compounds (VOC), deplete the ozone layer in the upper
stratosphere (tetrachloromethane, CFC 113, and
1,1,1-trichloroethane), pollute water resources after contact
with soil, and cause accidents involving fire and explosions.
By substitution of organic solvents in working environment I
find it impossible only to look at the effects of occupational
health. All the effects should be considered and then there are
many good reasons for elimination of organic solvents.
In (12) we present the possibilities for substitution of
organic solvents for 62 processes in industry. In the following
I will present experience from some processes using organic
solvents in manufacture of fabricated metal products, machinery
and equipment:
a)
Metal Degreasing
(3). By metal degreasing can be used all kinds of organic
solvents. A strategy for improvement can include:
1) Is degreasing necessary in the actual case? Is it possible
to modify the preceding process? What is the demand for
cleanness of the metal surface raised by the successive
process? An example: The use of precoated sheets would reduce
or eliminate the need for degreasing. The specialized shops
which produce precoated sheets have much better opportunities
for substitution, automation and encapsulation than ordinary
workshops where also a number of surface processes will be
avoided. Further the joining processes may have to be more
gentle - avoiding
welding, soldering, brazing and bonding with adhesives - for
especially developed mechanical joints (16).
2) Can the composition of the contamination of the metal
surface be modified so that waterbased degreasing agents can be
used? Producer/suppliers of chemicals products such as
lubricants, cutting fluids and corrosion protection layers can
often give this information.
2)
In figure 2 we present the possibilities for substitution of
metal degreasing (3).
Figure 2.
Structure of metal degreasing and possibilities for
substitution
Examples (the numbers refer to figure 2):
1)
Substitution to aqueous alkaline solution with pH as low as
possible.
2)
When the number of items is high, substitution from manual
degreasing with kerosene to mechanized degreasing such as high
pressure hosing with hot alkaline solution in a closed system
for example in car repair workshops.
3)
If it is not technically possible to substitute to aqueous
solutions, substitution should be made to less hazardous
organic solvents such as aliphatic hydrocarbons as high boiling
as possible.
4)
Substitution, especially in the electroplating industry, from
vapor degreasing to lye boiling by use of one more vessel.
5)
The predominat substitution from vapor degreasing with
trichloroethylene to high pressure hosing with hot alkaline
solution in a closed system.
6)
By dipping substitution to aqueous alkaline solutions.
7)
Substitution from dipping with organic solvents, for example
xylene, to the more effective high pressure hosing.
8)
By dipping: If it is not technically possible to substitute to
aqueous solutions, substitution should be made to less
hazardous organic solvents such as aliphatic hydrocarbons as
high boiling as possible.
9)
In repair shops, substitution can be made from lye boiling to
the more effective high pressure hosing.
In Denmark it took 10 years to reduce the use of
trichloroethylene to half (17) - in spite of a great effort
from grass roots movements of workers and academics and a big
Danish company influenced by the German Order (18) prohibiting
the use of trichloroethylene for metal degreasing. Politically,
the Danish Minister of Labour has in 1995 confirmed in an
answer (4) to the Parliaments commitee for labour market that
she will not work for prohibiting the use of chloronated
organic solvents such as the carcinogenic trichloroethylene and
tetrachloroethylene for metal degreasing in Denmark.
This big company has reported that a specific substitution of
trichloroethylene for vapour degreasing to water-based agent
for high pressure hosing with an acceptable quality of
degreasing has reduced the costs and the use of water from
0,269 to 0,155 m3/charge and energy from 17,7 to 12,4
kW/charge.
By substitution from organic solvents to water-based degreasing
agent there is a change from 100% organic solvent e.g.
trichloroethylene, to a ready-for-use aqueous solution
containing 99% water and hazardous chemicals from 0,01 to 0,1%.
This means that there is a great difference in potential
hazards between the final and the initial situation.
4) Water-based metal degreasing agents should be formulated so
that the effects on occupational health and the environment are
minimized, and the use of chemicals and water is reduced by
recycling (17). This could be used as a model for
reformulation of less hazardous chemical products. In
waterbased degreasing products are alkaline agents, complexing
agents, corrosion inhibitors, surfactants, etc. Here I will
only present one example about complexing agents e.g. NTA or
EDTA. The final solution: By recycling the use of water is so
small that demineralized water can be used thus eliminating the
necessity for the use of complexing agents. By waterbased
cutting fluids this has already happened. And in both cases
technical problems have also been solved. (For the other types
of chemicals in waterbased degreasing products see (17)).
5) By recycling (17) a reformulated degreasing agent in a
microfiltration unit it was possible by acceptable quality of
cleanness to increase the service life of the bath 5 times, and
to reduce the use of chemicals such as the builder component to
20%, the surfactant component to 30%, and water utilization for
setting up bath to 20%. Further, process down time has been
decreased for emptying and setting up bath, thereby also
reducing the attendant occupational health and safety risks.
b)
Bonding with adhesives
(16). The process of bonding can be described by the following
steps:
1. pretreatment of items e. g. degreasing where organic
solvents can be substituted with waterbased degreasing agent,
2. bonding with adhesive and
3. cleansing of items and tools after bonding which depends on
the type of adhesive. Water, organic solvents or mechanical
methods such as scraping off, grinding or blasting are used.
Instead of using organic solvents, cured adhesives should be
removed by mechanical means.
By the work with substitution of organic solvents in connection
with adhesives it has been necessary to include hazardous
binders to make the work meaningful. By bonding with adhesives
are used organic solvents (1,1,1-trichloroethane, toluene,
dichloromethane, ethanol, xylene, methyl methacrylate, styrene,
MEK, acetone) and hazardous binders (polyesters (styrene),
acrylates, epoxy resins, polyurethanes (isocyanates)). It has
been possible to group the 10 most used adhesives according to
their potential hazard (16). The possibilities of substitution
going from more hazardous to less harzardous level are
presented in figure 3.
Exemples of substitution:
1)
From solvent-based adhesive to waterbased adhesive for bonding
metal foil to metal foil for production of radiators.
2)
From polyester (styrene) adhesives to silicone adhesives in
combination with sealing for bonding surface material, e.g.
rubber, to metal in machines used in plastic industry.
3)
For body work in aluminium from epoxy resin, cyanoacrylate and
silicone adhesives to double-sided adhesives tape based on
acrylates.
4)
Instead of using anaerobic adhesives for locking thread and
nut, auto-locking nuts can be used (mechanical joining).
5)
A cover was formerly secured by bonding with adhesive over some
bars in a setbox to prevent the users from putting their
fingers into the box. By new design the distance between the
bars has now been made smaller, so there is no need for a cover
and for joining.
.
Technicians in production are interested to avoid bonding with
adhesives because they have experienced technical problems with
the control of the process. This fact should be used also from
a point of view of occupational health to avoid bonding with
adhesives, especially in the phase of design and construction
of new products. Bonding with adhesives makes repair and
recycling of items and materials difficult.
c) In the electronics industry
(19) it is possible at the same time to substitute CFC 113 and
other organic solvents used in vapour phase soldering
using soldering in an infra-red belt oven or
wave soldering in a closed system with an inert gas such as
nitrogen,
and with removal of residues after soldering
1.
by eliminating removal
using flux with a low residue content or
using wave soldering in a closed system with an inert gas such
as nitrogen, and
2. removal with
demineralized water using water-soluble flux.
Some workshops have changed to orange terpene oil for
environmental reasons. However, orange terpene oil is an
organic solvent, has allergenic effect (12) and can cause
accidents involving fire and explosions, so its use should be
avoided (19).
d) In manual thread-cutting and drilling in stainless steel
cutting fluids based on 1,1,1-trichloroethane can be
substituted with rapeseed oil (20).
e) In lubrication
of machine elements e.g. chainwheels and chains, lubricants
containing all types of organic solvents e.g.
1,1,1-trichloroethane or white spirit, can be replaced with
lubricants based on white mineral oil or other types of
lubricants without organic solvents (21).
Conclusion for organic solvents
Organic solvents are hazardous to humans and nature, so the use
of them should be avoided. For organic solvents we find it
technically possible to substitute them. Many good technical
alternatives already exist or can quickly be developed. But an
elimination of organic solvents in a foreseeable future is more
complicated because the change of the old attitudes is
difficult. In the
most successful example (the construction paints) it took 20
years to eliminate the last half of the organic solvents. In
metal degreasing it took 10 years to reduce the use of
trichloroethylene to half. In the cleaning of offset printing
machines it took 5 years to change one third of the workshops
from organic solvents to agents based on esters of vegetable
oils. In all 3 cases there have been many public activities, so
the difficulties for substitution in other processes may be
much greater.
Therefore, I find that for an elimination of organic solvents
it is necessary to use a way similar to the one used to
substances that deplete the ozone-layer according to the
Montreal Protocol. According to the Montreal Protocol (22) the
organic solvents: tetrachloromethane, CFC 113, and
1,1,1-trichloroethane are prohibited from 1996. I find that the
Montreal Protocol could be a model for a serious work with the
other organic solvents. Politically, the Danish Minister of
Labour (4) has in 1995 confirmed in an answer to the
Parliaments Commitee for Labour Market that she will not work
for that.
The program of the Danish Minister of Environment for a
voluntary reduction of the use of organic solvents in industry
will in practice mean little, because companies which are not
motivated to do that are not forced to do anything.
Other Chemicals
In the following I will present the experience with some other
chemicals than organic solvents such as epoxy resins,
polyurethanes (isocyanates) and acrylates, quartz, cadmium,
fluor and boron compounds, cyanides, nickel, and chromates.
Epoxy Resins, Polyurethanes (isocyanates) and Acrylates
Some technologies are introduced as alternatives to the use of
organic solvents for environmental reasons, but are problematic
in the working environment, e.g. UV-curing binders using
acrylates that can provoke allergy in the printing industry and
the wood and furniture industry, and powder coatings or
waterbased paints containing epoxy resins or polyurethanes (isocyanates)
that can provoke allergy and genetic changes. Provoked by an
extensive public debate about the Ames’ test and the result of
its use on epoxy resins in 1978 an Order (1) on products of
epoxy resins, polyurethanes (isocyanates) and acrylates was
introduced. The demand for substitution was here specifically
mentioned for the first time. On the contrary, the activities
of the Danish environmental protection authorities for a
cleaner technology - only with respect to the environment -
have promoted a
further use of these chemicals. The latter should according to
the Order be eliminated in the working environment. The only
knowledge about substitution of these chemicals I have is that
there is a general tendency to replace adhesives based on this
type of binders with less hazardous types of adhesives such as
hot-melt or silicone adhesives, especially in the electronics
industry (16).
Quartz Sand for Blasting
In some countries, e.g. England in 1948, and Germany, Sweden,
and Norway in 1970’s, a prohibition order was issued about the
use of quartz sand for blasting becaused it can cause
silicosis. This did not happen in Denmark -
not even when crystalline silica (quartz) came on the
Danish list of carcinogenic chemicals and materials. In the
manufacture of fabricated metal products, machinery and
equipment there are good substitutes such as steel sand,
corundum, amorphous silicate compounds, or glass powder (1).
But there are also hazardous alternatives, e.g. slags with a
content of heavy metals or some types of amorphous silicate
compounds containing asbestos or quartz, that should not be
used. An attempt to introduce a prohibition of quartz sand for
blasting in Denmark was stopped in 1988. Politically, the
Danish Minister of Labour has in 1995 confirmed in an answer
(4) to the Parliaments committee for labour market that she
will not work for a prohibition.
Cadmium-containing Agents for Soldering and Brazing
Cadmium has carcinogenic and other long-term effects.
Cadmium-containing agents for soldering and brazing have in
Denmark since 1975 according to an order been prohibited to
use, but not to sell. Ten years later I could establish that
just 3 of the suppliers had 240 customers for these agents,
although the Danish Working Environment Service only had
granted 5-10 exemptions. As alternatives less hazardous
cadmium-free agents for soldering and brazing are on the
market. Politically, the Danish Minister of Labour has in 1995
confirmed in an answer (4) to the Parliaments Committee for
Labour Market that she will not work for a total prohibition.
Fluor and Boron Compounds in Flux by Brazing
By brazing (1), less hazardous designs of the process exist
where the use of fluxes containing fluor and boron compounds
with reprotoxic effects is avoided, e.g. 1. in a vacuum oven
with a brazer of copper, 2. in a furnace with reducing
atmosphere, and 3. particularly for items of copper and brass
with a brazer of silver-copper-phosphorus.
Cyanides
Cyanides have long-term effects such as reprotoxic and
neurotoxic effects. In the electroplating industry (1) there
are good possibilities to avoid the use of cyanides by
electrodegreasing, e.g. using a solution of (pyro)phosphate,
and by electroplating of zinc using an alkaline cyanide-free
solution.
Nickel
The use of nickel with carcinogenic, reprotoxic and allergenic
effects should as a general principle be avoided. In many
workshops electroplating with nickel is only applied for
cosmetic reasons without any technical purpose, but it is
difficult to change the attitude. Otherwise electroplating with
nickel can be replaced with electroplating with tin or by the
use of stainless steel as the material of construction (1).
Politically, the Danish Minister of Labour has in 1995
confirmed in an answer (4) to the Parliaments Committee for
Labour Market that she will not work for a regulation of
electroplating with nickel.
Chromates
Chromates with carcinogenic, reprotoxic and allergenic effects
can technically be replaced with the less hazardous chrom(III)-compounds
in electroplating of chromium for decoration (1). But it is
difficult to change the attitude. Politically, the Danish
Minister of Labour (4) has in 1995 confirmed in an answer to
the Parliaments Committee for Labour Market that she will not
work for a regulation of electroplating with chromates.
Further for the electroplating industry, the program of the
Danish Minister of Environment for cleaner technology concluded
not in qualitative changes as in serious work with cleaner
technology but in quantitative changes such as to follow over
time the concentration of, e.g. nickel, in waste water. So
there is no help here for an improvement in the working
environment in the electroplating industry.
Social and political experiences
The Danish National Institute of Occupational Health (23) shows
that the working environment and health have not been improved
from 1990-95 in Denmark. Accidents and deaths at work have
increased.
In 1993 Litske (1), research manager at the European Foundation
for the Improvement of Living and Working Conditions in Dublin,
concludes based on four reports (1): “The main impression from
these reports is that the size of the exposures in the working
environment in Denmark has unfortunately been rather constant
during the last 10-12 years. The pattern of exposures has,
however, changed a good deal. Where the research has been
concentrated it has paid off. The number of brain damages has
thus decreased significantly as a result of professional
efforts against exposures (so there is also something good in
the state of Denmark!). Otherwise the situation is status quo
in the other chemical areas as well as for dust, smoke, and
draught. On the other hand the problems have increased somewhat
in relation to noise, repetitive/monotonous motions and
straining work positions. In the psycho-social area the
situation is much worse,....’
In 1980’s a myth developed that the working environment
in Denmark should be much better than in other countries.
The European Foundation for Improvement of Living and
Work Conditions (24) could not confirm that in 1996.
The only positive effect in the last 20 years is the decrease
in number of brain damages caused by organic solvents which is
mainly due to the extensive interest in this subject from
grassroot movements of workers and academics. As a result
of the students’ movement about 1970 in Denmark a cooperation
of workers and academics was initiated about the improvement of
the working environment. A number of reports were written,
especially about hazardous chemicals, e.g. organic solvents.
This revealed that the standard of the occupational health was
of an extremely low level and that the social democratic
party/labor unions had very little interest in safety and
health at work.
Personally I also experienced about 1980 the low level in
Denmark comparing the existing institutions in visiting Sweden
and Finland. Most astonishing was in Sweden an education to
safety engineer existing for the last 15 years - still not
established in Denmark. In Sweden there existed no grassroot
movement because there was not the same need.
This had an influence on the public opinion resulting in a new
working environment law in 1975. The law was only a
framework which later on should be filled in. The results
of this law I have just presented.
The Danish Minister of Labour (1) gave in 1990 some figures for
different countries for expenditure to research and development
in working environment. Converted into Danish crowns per
inhabitant the figures are: Denmark 2, Germany 7, Finland 10,
and Sweden 22. (6 Dkr =1USD). With this low level in Denmark it
has always been difficult to raise money from the Danish
Working Environmental Fund (AMF) which has a political
board attaching a political steering committee to each project.
Politically it is today
impossible to work seriously with substitution in
Denmark.
All Danish politicians are verbally very positive on a general level. But by introducing regulations and prohibitions that could have positive effects in reality the attitude is very negative as I have given specific examples of earlier for the Minister of Labour (4), Jytte Andersen, from the Social Democratic party (a "Labor party").
The Danish Working Environment Service has only resources to visit companies every fourth year. By seriously working it should be at least every year. Since 1987 the Danish Working Environment Service has collected examples of substitution. But nothing has been published inspiring companies and qualifying the work of the Service as the intention was.
The employer’s associations have been against all
activities for improvement of occupational health in reality.
But the employees in these organisations are verbal very
positive on a general non-committal level. Some few companies
have been positive which has been a good help for me in my
research. Further there is very little risk for employers with
bad working environment for fine and punishment comparing with
other kind of injures or killing of man. The highest fine for
continued accidents with deaths on the most bad working
conditions is about 200000 Dkr=30000 USD. An amount many times
saved for the company with nothing to do in the working
environment.
The head of the unions has never taken the health and
safety of their members seriously. The Federation of Danish
Trade Unions refuse to formulate a policy for the working
environment. The Federation has always recommended my research
projects to AMF, but never worked for realizing the results.
Also the Danish Metal Worker Union have showed no interest in
my work and improvement of health and safety for their members.
Some local unions have worked for improvement of occupational
health mostly in cooperation with academics.
EU
has done very little about working environment, and there is a
decreasing activity in the last years as presented by R. Haigh,
DG V at the conference: Elimination of organic solvents, Paris,
December 1996. The European Agency for Safety and Health at
Work in Bilbao, Spain, has not presented any works of
substitution. The European Foundation for the Improvement of
Living and Working Conditions in Dublin has presented reports
(24) on the state of working environment in EU and the member
countries. One of the conclusions is that the existing
knowledge is not used, and the solutions are not realized.
With the directive 90/394/EEC substitution of hazardous
chemicals only with carcinogenic effects was introduced in EU.
But the EU labeling and classification system and data sheets
make, as earlier mentioned, the work for substitution very
difficult. No activities about substitution have been done in
EU, and my experience is that it is impossible to raise money
for research. Of more interest in EU is biological monitoring,
where workers instead of hazardous chemicals are replaced.
Conclusion
The low level of occupational health is secured by expressing a
general non-committal positive attitude to occupational health
and in reality by doing as little as possible. Especially
Denmark is a pioneer country to avoid improvement in working
environment. But the technical possibilities for improvement of
working environment exist or can quickly be developed.
The main problem is to get these less hazardous technical
possibilities realized to a full extent in the foreseeable
future. Technical
change caused by economic reasons is accepted, but technical
change for reasons based on working environment is not. The
human rights for life and health for workers in working
environment do not exist in reality.
The combination of a general very positive verbal attitude to
occupational health, e. g. substitution, and the lack of money
for research and labour protection, regulations, prohibitions,
fines and punishments for employers will secure a continued bad
occupational health.
References
1) Soerensen, F. and Styhr Petersen, H.J. (1995) Substitution
of hazardous chemicals and the Danish experience. Occupational
Hygiene, 1, 261-278
(a review
article)
2) Soerensen, F. and Styhr Petersen, H.J. (1988). Substitution
of dangerous chemicals by a process-based method, Staub -
Reinhaltung der Luft, 48, 469-472
3) Soerensen, F. and Styhr Petersen, H.J. (1991).
A process-based method for substitution of hazardous chemicals
and its application to metal degreasing, Journal of Hazardous
Waste & Hazardous Materials, 8, no 1, 69-84
4) Danish Minister of Labour (1995). The answers of question no
5-19 and 61 from the Parliments Commetee for the Labour Market.
Copenhagen.
5) Goldschmidt, G. (1993). An Analytical Approach for Reducing
Workplace Health Hazards through Substitution. Journal of
American Industrial Hygiene Association, 54, 36-43
6)
Olsen, E. et al. (1992). On
the substitution of chemicals-Use of the SUBFAC-index for
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637-52
8) Danish Working Environment Service. Executive Order on the
Determination of Code Numbers. Executive Order No. 301 of 13.
May 1993 (in English)
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with Code-numbered Products. Executive Order No. 302 of 13. May
1993 (in English)
10) Rheker, R. and Woelke, R. (1996).
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22) UNEP (1992). Report of the fourth meeting of the parties to
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